Factores del entorno empresarial que condicionan la actividad de las micropymes femeninas de turismo rural en Costa Rica
- GUTIÉRREZ CRUZ, MERLYN 1
- SUCH DEVESA, MARÍA JESÚS 2
- GABALDÓN QUIÑONES, PATRICIA 3
- 1 Universidad de Alcalá, España
- 2 Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, España.
- 3 Instituto de Empresa Business School, Madrid, España.
ISSN: 2530-7134
Year of publication: 2023
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 151-173
Type: Article
More publications in: Revista Internacional de Turismo, Empresa y Territorio. RITUREM
Abstract
This study analyzes the factors that influence the activity of established rural tourist MSMEs led by women in Costa Rica. Based on institutional theory, formal (human capital, bureaucratic barriers, access to financing and government support) and informal (codes of conduct, social norms and expected family roles) institutional elements influencing female entrepreneurial activity were selected. A fuzzy qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was performed on a sample of 28 Costa Rican rural tourist businesswomen to find out the interactions between these factors affecting the generation of profits. The research results reveal five different configurations that lead to low or zero profits in female entrepreneurship. Formal factors (bureaucratic barriers and low levels of human capital), combined with the presence or absence of other institutional factors, both formal and informal, represent a critical condition linked to the low or no generation profits in these ventures. The implications of this research contribute to the knowledge of the formal and informal institutional elements affecting the growth of women-led businesses in the Costa Rican rural tourism sector, and to the strengthening of female business activity. Keywords: institutional theory, women entrepreneurs, rural tourism, Costa Rica
Bibliographic References
- Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 595-621. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x
- Ahl, H. y Nelson, T. (2015). How policy positions women entrepreneurs: A comparative analysis of state discourse in Sweden and the United States. Journal of Business Venturing,30(2), 273-291. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.08.002
- Aidis, R. (2005). Institutional Barriers to Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprise Operations in Transition Countries. Small Business Economics, 25(4), 305-318. doi: 10.1007/s11187-003-6463-7
- Aidis, R., Welter, F., Smallbone, D. y Isakova, N. (2007). Female entrepreneurship in transition economies: the case of Lithuania and Ukraine. Feminist Economics, 13(2), 157–183. doi: 10.1080/13545700601184831
- Albort-Morant, G. y Oghazi, P. (2016). How useful are incubators for new entrepreneurs? Journal of Business Research, 69(6), 2125–2129. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.12.019
- Álvarez, C., Noguera, M. y Urbano, D. (2012). Condicionantes del entorno y emprendimiento femenino: Un estudio cuantitativo en España. Economía Industrial, (383), 43-52. Recuperado de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3903896
- Álvarez, C., Urbano, D., Coduras, A. y Navarro, J. R. (2011). Environmental conditions and entrepreneurial activity: a regional comparison in Spain. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 18(1), 120-140. doi: 10.1108/14626001111106460
- Amine, L. S. y Staub, K. M. (2009). Women entrepreneurs in sub-Saharan Africa: An institutional theory analysis from a social marketing point of view. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 21(2), 183-211. doi: 10.1080/08985620802182144
- Ascher, J. (2012). Female Entrepreneurship – An appropriate response to gender discrimination. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management, and Innovation, 8(4), 97–114. doi: 10.7341/2012847
- Bardasi, E., Sabarwal, S. y Terrell, K. (2011). How do female entrepreneurs perform? Evidence from three developing regions. Small Business Economics, 37(4), 417-441. doi: 10.1007/s11187-011-9374-z
- Basil-Zwiegelaar, J. (2017). A configuration study based on performance nascent Ventures (Tesis Doctoral). Universidad Massey , Nueva Zelanda. Recuperado de https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/13161/02_whole.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
- Basurto, X. y Speer, J. (2012). Structuring the calibration of qualitative data as sets for qualitative comparative analysis (QCA). Field Methods, 24(2), 155-174. doi: 10.1177/1525822X11433998
- Becchetti, L. y Trovato, G. (2002). The Determinants of Growth for Small and Medium Sized Firms. The Role of the Availability of External Finance. Small Business Economics, 19(4), 291-306. doi: 10.1023/A:1019678429111
- Braidford, P. y Stone, I. W. (5-7 November 2008). Women's business centres - lessons learned from USA, Sweden and Canada. Institute for Small Business & Entrepreneurship, Belfast. Recuperado de https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Women's-business-centres-lessonslearned-from-USA%2C-Braidford-Stone/a5d9036ad2baadce80bc975cf06138d5c7bf0fb0
- Brindley, C. (2005). Barriers to women achieving their entrepreneurial potential. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 11(2), 144-161. doi: 10.1108/13552550510590554
- Brinks, D. M. (2003). Informal Institutions and the Rule of Law: The Judicial Response to State Killings in Buenos Aires and São Paulo in the 1990s, Comparative Politics, 36(1), 1-19. Recuperado de https://www.jstor.org/stable/4150157
- Bruhn, M. (2009). Female-Owned Firms in Latin America: Characteristics, Performance, and Obstacles to Growth (Policy Research Working Paper, No. 5122). Washington DC., World Bank. Recuperado de https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19961
- Bruton, G. D., Ketchen D. J. y Ireland R. D. (2013). Entrepreneurship as a solution to poverty. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(6), 683-689. doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2020.01.010
- Bruton G. D., Khavul S. y Chavez, H. (2011). Microlending in emerging economies: Building a new line of inquiry from the ground up. Journal of International Business Studies, 42(5), 718-739. doi: 10.1057/jibs.2010.58
- Cabrera, E. M. y Mauricio, D. (2017). Factors affecting the success of women’s entrepreneurship: a review of literature. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 9(1), 31-65. doi: 10.1108/IJGE-01-2016-0001
- Cacciotti, G. y Hayton, J. (2015). Fear and Entrepreneurship: A Review and Research Agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 17(2), 165-190. doi: 10.1111/ijmr.12052
- Carr, M. y Chen, M. (2004). Globalization, social exclusion and gender. International Labour Review, 143(1), 129-160. doi: 10.1111/j.1564-913X.2004.tb00548.x
- Carter, S., Anderson, S. y Shaw, E. (2001). Women's Business Ownership: A Review of the Academic, Popular and Internet Literature. Report to the Small Business Service, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK. Recuperado de https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237222197
- Carter, N. M. y Williams, M. L. (2003). Comparing social feminism and liberal feminism: The case of new firm growth. En Butler, J. E. (Ed.), New perspectives on women entrepreneurs (pp. 25–50). Connecticut, USA: Information Age.
- Carter, N. M., Brush, C. B., Gatewood, E. J., Greene, P. G. y Hart, M. M. (2003). Financing entrepreneurship: Is gender an issue? En The Center for Economic Progress (Ed.), Critical Junctures in Women's Economic Lives: A Collection of Symposium Papers (pp. 45-51). Minneapolis, MN: The Center for Economic Progress.
- Cetindamar, D., Gupta, V., Karadeniz, E. y Egrican, N. (2012). What the numbers tell: The impact of human, family and financial capital on women and men's entry into entrepreneurship in Turkey. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 24(1-2), 29-51. doi: 10.1080/08985626.2012.637348
- Coleman, S. y Robb, A. (2009). A comparison of new firm financing by gender: Evidence from the Kauffman Firm Survey data. Small Business Economics, 33(4), 397-411. doi: 10.1007/s11187-009-9205-7
- Dana, L. P. (1990). Saint Martin/Sint Maarten: A Case Study of the Effects of Culture on Economic Development. Journal of Small Business Management, 28(4), 91-98. Recuperado de https://search.proquest.com/docview/220954188?accountid=37045
- Daou, A., Karuranga, E. y Su, Z. (2013). Intellectual Capital In Mexican SMEs From The Perspective Of The Resource-Based And Dynamic Capabilities Views. Journal of Applied Business Research, 29(6), 1673-1688. doi: 10.19030/jabr.v29i6.8206
- Darbi, W. P. K., Hall, C. y Knott, P. (2018). The Informal Sector: A Review and Agenda for Management Research. International Journal of Management Reviews, 20(2), 301-324. doi: 10.1111/ijmr.12131
- Davidsson, P. (1991). Continued entrepreneurship: Ability, need and opportunity as determinants of small firm growth. Journal of Business Venturing, 6(6), 405-429. doi: 10.1016/0883-9026(91)90028-C
- Davidsson, P. y Honig, B. (2003). The role of social and human capital among nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(3), 301-331. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9026(02)00097-6
- Delmar, F. y Holmquist, C. (3-5 June 2004). Women’s entrepreneurship: Issues and policies. En 2nd OECD Conference of Ministers Responsible for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs), Promoting Entrepreneurship and Innovative SMEs in a Global Economy, Istanbul, Turkey. Recuperado en http://www.oecd.org/cfe/smes/31919215.pdf
- Denzau, A. y North, D. (1994). Shared Mental Models: Ideologies and Institutions, Kyklos, 47(1), pp. 3-31. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6435.1994.tb02246.x
- De-Vita, L., Mari, M. y Poggesi, S. (2014). Women entrepreneurs in and from developing countries: Evidences from the literature. European Management Journal, 32(3), 451-460. doi: 10.1016/j.emj.2013.07.009
- Díaz-Casero, J. C. (2003). La creación de las empresas en Extremadura. Un análisis institucional (Tesis Doctoral). Universidad de Extremadura, España. Recuperado de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/tesis?codigo=1282
- Díaz-Casero, J. C., Urbano-Pulido, D. y Hernández-Mogollón, R. (2005). Teoría económica institucional y creación de empresas. Investigaciones Europeas de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 11(3), 209-230. Recuperado de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1358011
- Díaz-Casero, J. C., Hernández-Mogollón, R. y Urbano-Pulido, D., (2006). Hacia un modelo institucional de creación de empresas. Boletín De Estudios Económicos, 61(189), 495-522. Recuperado de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2200878
- Estrin, S. y Mickiewicz, T. (2011). Institutions and female entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 37(4), 397-415. doi: 10.1007/s11187-011-9373-0
- Fairlie, R. y Robb, W. (2009). Gender differences in business performance: Evidence from the Characteristics of Business Owners survey. Small Business Economics, 33(4), 375-395. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1260987
- Fernandes-Crespo, N. (2017). Cross-cultural Differences in the Entrepreneurial Activity of Men and Women: A Fuzzy-set Approach. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 32(4), 281-99. doi: 10.1108/GM-03-2016-0072
- Ferri, E. y Urbano, D. (Septiembre 2010). Environmental factors and social entrepreneurship, (documento de trabajo No. 10/3). Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona: Departamento de Economía de la Empresa. Recuperado de https://recercat.cat//handle/2072/97455#
- Fiss, P. C. (2007). A set-theoretic approach to organizational configurations. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1180–1198. doi: 10.5465/amr.2007.26586092
- Gerrits, L. y Verweij, S. (2018). The evaluation of complex infrastructure projects: A guide to qualitative comparative analysis. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Recuperado de https://ssrn.com/abstract=3416103
- Gielnik, M. M. y Frese, M. (2013). Entrepreneurship and poverty reduction: Applying IO psychology to microbusiness and entrepreneurship in developing countries. En Olson Buchanan, J., Koppes Bryan, L. y Foster Thompson, L. (Eds.), Using industrial-organizational psychology for the greater good: Helping those who help others (pp. 394-438). New York: Routledge, Taylor Francis. Recuperado en: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281528448_Entrepreneurship_and_poverty_reductio n_Applying_IO_psychology_to_microbusiness_and_entrepreneurship_in_developing_countries
- Giménez, D. y Calabrò, A. (2018). The salient role of institutions in Women’s entrepreneurship: a critical review and agenda for future research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 14(4), 857-882. doi: 10.1007/s11365-017-0480-5
- Gnyawali, D. R. y Fogel, D. S. (1994). Environments for Entrepreneurship Development: Key Dimensions and Research Implications. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(4), 43–62. doi: 10.1177/104225879401800403
- Hashi, I. (2001). Financial and Institutional Barriers to SME Growth in Albania: Results of an Enterprise Survey. MOST: Economic Policy in Transitional Economies, 11(3), 221-238. doi: 10.1023/A:1013157127524
- Hertz, N. (2011). Women and banks. Are female customers facing discrimination? London, UK: Institute for Public Policy Research. Recuperado de https://www.ippr.org/publications/womenand-banks-are-female-customers-facing-discrimination
- Hill, F. M., Leitch, C. M. y Harrison, R. T. (2006). ‘Desperately seeking finance?’ The demand for finance by women-owned and -led businesses. Venture Capital, 8(2), 159-182. doi: 10.1080/13691060600555347
- Jardón, C. M. y Martos, M. S. (2009). Intellectual capital and performance in wood industries of Argentina. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 10(4), 600-616. doi: 10.1108/14691930910996670
- Jennings, J. E. y Mcdougald, M. S. (2007). Work-Family interface experiences and coping strategies: Implications for entrepreneurship research and practice. The Academy of Management Review, 32(3), 747-760. doi: 10.5465/amr.2007.25275510
- Kelley, D., Brush, C., Greene, P., Herrington, M., Ali, A. y Kew, P. (2015). GEM 2014 Women's Entrepreneuship Special Report. Recuperado de http://gemconsortium.org/report/49281
- Khaleque, A. (2018). Performance of Women Entrepreneurs: ¿Does Access to Finance Really Matter? Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 11(21), 23-48. doi: 10.17015/ejbe.2018.021.02
- Kim, P., Aldrich, H. y Keister, H. (2006). Access (Not) Denied: The Impact of Financial, Human, and Cultural Capital on Entrepreneurial Entry in the United States. Small Business Economics, 27(1), 5-22. doi: 10.1007/s11187-006-0007-x
- Lee, J. H., Sohn, S. Y. y Ju, Y. H. (2011). How effective is government support for Korean women entrepreneurs in small and medium enterprises? Journal of Small Business Management, 49(4), 599–616. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-627X.2011.00338.x
- Lerner, M. y Haber, S. (2001). Performance factors of small tourism ventures: The interface of tourism, entrepreneurship and the environment, Journal of Business Venturing, 16(1), 77-100. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9026(99)00038-5
- Lumpkin, G. T. y Dess, G. G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it to performance. Academy of Management Review, 21(1), 135–172. doi: 10.5465/amr.1996.9602161568
- Mayoux, L. (2001). Jobs, Gender and Small Enterprises: Getting the Policy Environment Right (SEED Working Paper No. 15). Geneva: International Labour Organization. Recuperado de: https://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/2001/101B09_94_engl.pdf
- Medina, I., Castillo Ortiz, P. J., Álamos Concha, P. y Rihoux, B. (2017). Análisis Cualitativo Comparado (QCA). Cuadernos metodológicos, (56). Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas.
- McGowan, P., Lewis-Redeker, C., Cooper, S. y Greenan, K. (2012). Female entrepreneurship and the management of business and domestic roles: Motivations, expectations and realities. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 24 (1-2), 53-72. doi: 10.1080/08985626.2012.637351
- Mckelvie, A. y Davidsson, P. (2009). From resource base to dynamic capabilities: an investigation of new firms. British Journal of Management, 20(s1), S63-S80. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2008.00613.x
- Meyer, J. W. (1977). The Effects of Education as an Institution. American Journal of Sociology, 83(1), 55-77. Recuperado de https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Effects-of-Education-as-anInstitution-Meyer/4f999a3f339e48f1dfeabdd19cf786108200e82b
- Mueller, S. L. y Dato-On, M. C. (2008). Gender-role orientation as a determinant of entreprenuer selfefficacy. Journal of developmental Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 3-20. doi: 10.1142/S108494670800082X
- Noguera, M. (2012). Female entrepreneurship in Catalonia: an institutional approach (Tesis Doctoral). Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, España, Recuperado de: https://www.tdx.cat/handle/10803/116322
- Noguera, M., Álvarez, C. y Urbano, D. (2013). Socio-cultural factors and female entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(2), 183-197. doi: 10.1007/s11365-013-0251-x
- North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic performance (Political Economy of Institutions and Decisions). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511808678
- North, D. C. (1993). Instituciones, cambio institucional y desempeño económico. D.F., México: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- North, D. C. (1994). Economic Performance Through Time. American Economic Review, 84(3), 359 -368. Recuperado de https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118057
- North, D. C. (2005). Understanding the process of economic change. New Jersey: Princeton. Recuperado de https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zvbxt
- Quader, M. S. (2012). A characteristic model of successful women entrepreneurs in the UK. Journal of Services Research, 12(1), 89-113. Recuperado de https://www.academia.edu/22855966/a_characteristic_model_of_successful_wom-_en_entrepreneurs_in_the_uk
- Ragin, C. C. (1987). The Comparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Ragin, C. C. (2006). Set relations in social research: Evaluating their consistency and coverage. Political analysis, 14(3), 291-310. Recuperado de www.jstor.org/stable/25791854
- Ragin, C. C. (2008). Redesigning Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
- Ramadani, V., Rexhepi, G., Abazi-Alili, H., Beqiri, B. y Thaçi, A. (2015). A look at female entrepreneurship in Kosovo: An exploratory study. Journal of Enterprising Communities, 9(3), 277-294. doi: 10.1108/JEC-04-2015-0027
- Rey-Martí, A., Porcar, A. T. y Mas-Tur, A. (2015). Linking female entrepreneurs' motivation to business survival. Journal of Business Research, 68(4), 810-814. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.11.033
- Rihoux, B. y Ragin, C. (2009). Configurational comparative methods: Qualitative comparative analysis and related techniques. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. doi: 10.4135/9781452226569
- Rivera, M. (2018). Turismo, brecha salarial y desigualdades laborales de género en espacios rurales de Andalucía (España). Cuadernos geográficos de la Universidad de Granada, 57 (3), 291-312. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/cuadgeo.v57i3.6459
- Roomi, M. A., Rehman, S. y Colette, H. (2018). Exploring the normative context for women’s entrepreneurship in Pakistan: A critical análisis. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 10(2), 158-180. doi: 10.1108/IJGE-03-2018-0019
- Rosa, P., Carter, R. y Hamilton, D. (1996). Gender as determinant of small business performance: Insights from a British study. Small Business Economics, 8(6), 463-478. doi: 10.1007/BF00390031
- Sarfaraz, L., Faghih, N. y Majd, A. A. (2014). The relationship between women entrepreneurship and gender equality. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 4(1), 1-11. doi: 10.1186/2251-7316-2-6
- Sena, V., Scott, J. y Roper, S. (2012). Gender, Borrowing Patterns and Self-employment: Some Evidence for England. Small Business Economics, 38(4), 467-80. doi: 10.1007/s11187-010-9272-9
- Singh, R. P. y Lucas, L. M. (2005). Not just domestic engineers: an exploratory study of homemaker entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice, 29(1), 79-90. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00070.x
- Siqueira, A. C. O. y Bruton, G. D. (2010). High-Technology Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies: Firm Informality and Contextualization of Resource-Based Theory. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 57(1), 39-50. doi: 10.1109/TEM.2009.2028323
- Smithson, M. (1987). Fuzzy Set Analysis for Behavioral and Social Sciences. New York: SpringerVerlag. Schneider, C. y Wagemann, C. (2012). Set-theoretic methods for the social sciences: A guide to qualitative comparative analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Storey, D. J. (2004). Racial and Gender Discrimination in the Micro Firms Credit Market?: Evidence from Trinidad and Tobago. Small Business Economics, 23(5), 401-422. doi: 10.1007/s11187-004-7259-0
- Sullivan, D. M. y Meek, W. R. (2012). Gender and Entrepreneurship: A Review and Process Model. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 27(5), 428-458. doi: 10.1108/02683941211235373
- Torres, L. L. (2018). Interiorización de los estereotipos de género en la sociedad argentina y el ideal de belleza en los mensajes publicitarios. Estudio transversal en 4 rangos de edad que abarca de los 18 a los 49 años (Tesis Doctoral). Universidad Complutense de Madrid, España. Recuperado de https://eprints.ucm.es/47905/1/T39985.pdf
- Ufuk, H. y Özgen O. (2001). Interaction between the Business and Family Lives of Women Entrepreneurs in Turkey. Journal of Business Ethics, 31(2), 95-106. doi: 10.1023/A:1010712023858
- Unger, J. M., Rauch, A., Frese, M. y Rosenbusch, N. (2011). Human capital and entrepreneurial success: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(3), 341-358. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.09.004
- Valencia-Silva, M. (2010). Factores que influyen en los resultados de las nuevas empresas creadas por mujeres (Tesis Doctoral). Universidad Ramón Llul, España, Recuperado de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/tesis?codigo=89049
- Verkuilen, J. (2005). Assigning Membership in a Fuzzy Set Analysis. Sociological Methods & Research, 33(4), 462-496. doi: 10.1177/0049124105274498
- Woodside, A. G. (2013). Moving beyond multiple regression analysis to algorithms: calling for adoption of a paradigm shift from symmetric to asymmetric thinking in data analysis and crafting theory. Journal of Business Research, 66(4), 463–472. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.12.021
- Xu, H., Wang C., Wu J., Liang Y., Jiao, Y. y Nazneen, S. (2018). Human Poverty Alleviation through Rural Women's Tourism Entrepreneurship. Journal of China Tourism Research, 14(4), 445-460. doi: 10.1080/19388160.2018.1507860
- Young, E. C. y Welsch, H. P. (1993). Major elements in entrepreneurial development in central Mexico. Journal of Small Business Management, 31(4), 80-85. Recuperado de https://search.proquest.com/docview/220999814?accountid=37045
- Yunis, M. S., Hashim, H. y Anderson, A. R. (2018). Enablers and Constraints of Female Entrepreneurship in Khyber Pukhtunkhawa, Pakistan: Institutional and Feminist Perspectives. Sustainability, 11(1), 27-47. doi: 10.3390/su11010027
- Zwan, P., Verheul, I. y Thurik, A. (2012). The entrepreneurial ladder, gender, and regional development. Small Business Economics, 39(3), 627-643. doi: 10.1007/s11187-011-9334-7